Engines of Oppression: James Watt

Engines of Oppression: James Watt's Pioneering Innovations and the Powering of Sugar Mills on Sugar Plantations

Cyanotype: Engines of Oppression: James Watt's Innovations, artist proof on Fabriano paper, 2023, Tracey Thorne, from the series Intended for Jamaica

This cyanotype explores how James Watt (1736-1819), celebrated as a hero of the Industrial Revolution, was connected to the British transatlantic slave trade through the adaptation of his steam engine for use in sugar mills on sugar plantations, which were operated by enslaved people.

This work aims to challenge and expand upon dominant historical narratives of industrialisation that have largely overlooked these connections. It explores some of the connections with Jamaica by using archival material to extract and bring together layers of this history.

Memorials

The statue of James Watt in Birmingham, known as the "James Watt Memorial," was created by sculptor Alexander Munro and was unveiled in 1868. It used to stand in Chamberlain Square, Birmingham and commemorates Watt's contributions to the Industrial Revolution. The statue depicts Watt seated, deep in thought, reflecting his reputation as a brilliant engineer and innovator.

Watt spent much of his professional life in Birmingham, where his improvements to the steam engine had a profound impact on the industry, including in sectors such as textiles and sugar production, the latter of which was linked to the exploitation of enslaved labour. The statue is part of a broader historical context that celebrates industrial achievements while often overlooking the more troubling aspects of their legacy, such as their connections to slavery and colonialism.

Note: Watts statue was removed from Chamberlain Square when the former Library of Birmingham was demolished and is now held in Birmingham Museums Collection stores.

Privilege

The 20-year-old Scottish instrument maker, James Watt, around 1756 was tasked by professors at Glasgow University to repair astronomical instruments that had arrived from Port Royal, Jamaica. These instruments were bequeathed to the University by Alexander Macfarland (1702-1755), a former student of Glasgow University who later amassed wealth as a West Indian planter and slave owner in Jamaica.

At the time of his probate, Macfarland's estate was valued at around £74,535.41 in Jamaican currency, with £36,199.75 of that sum attributed to the value of the 791 enslaved people.

Watt received £5 for his repairs, and this work appears to have played a significant role in enabling him to establish his workshop within the University where he later assumed the title of "Mathematical Instrument Maker to the University.

This marked a pivotal moment in Watt's early career, providing him with the privilege and opportunity to conduct experiments on the Newcomen Engine. These experiments ultimately led to his improvements on the stationary steam engine, culminating in his groundbreaking patent.

James Watt patented his first steam engine design in 1769. James Watt entered into a partnership with Matthew Boulton in 1775.

Enslavers

Although an early prototype of the Boulton & Watt steam engine was likely sent to Jamaica around 1790, the first official order recorded in the Catalogue of Old Engines (a copy ledger from the 1890s) was for Sir Alexander Grant's Dalvey sugar plantation estate in Jamaica in 1808. This estate was owned by Sir Alexander Grant, an enslaver whose family's wealth was made from slave trading. Between 1808 and 1850, around 55 orders to supply steam engines to sugar plantations in Jamaica are listed in the Catalogue of Old Engines. These orders were managed by James Watt's son, James Watt Jr., who took over operations at Soho Foundry, Birmingham and who benefited from the wealthy generated from these sales to places of enslavement.

Caribbean enslavers formed a key customer base for the firm of Boulton and Watt during the early half of the nineteenth century where they dominated foreign markets supplying their steam engines to power sugar mills, operated by enslaved people, boned and indentured labourers.

Copies of the Boulton & Watt steam engine for Dalvey Sugar plantation and correspondence from Sir Alexander Grant are held in the Boulton & Watt Collection at the Library of Birmingham.

Maps of Slavery

James Robertson's Map of Jamaica in 1804 plotted around 814 sugar plantations in Jamaica these sites are denoted on the map by a symbol that record how the sugar mills were powered - typically in Jamaica prior to the steam engine this was by animal, watermills or windmills. The mark of the windmill is shown in the bottom left of the circular illustration near to Watt's foot - this is near to where Dalvey Sugar Plantation was plotted in 1804.

The cyanotype print of James Watt (on Arches Platine paper, 11.7 x 16.5 inches) and original archive material, plus a copy of Robertson's 1804 map of Jamaica are currently being exhibited in the exhibition Intended for Jamaica in the Gallery, 3rd Floor, at the Library of Birmingham.

Read more about Intended for Jamaica here - Latest Work. The project was supported with a grant from Arts Council England.

Recommended reading on James Watt and Slavery see Dr Stephen Mullens (2020) - James Watt and Slavery blog and History West Midlands podcast